United States Army Air Forces

United States Army Air Forces (USAAF)
USAAF Shoulder Sleeve Insignia ("Hap Arnold Emblem")
Active	June 20, 1941–September 17, 1947
Country	United States of America
Branch	United States Army
Size	2.4 million members (March 1944) 79,908 aircraft (July 1944)
Commanders
Notable commanders	Gen. Henry H. Arnold, 1941-1946 Gen. Carl Spaatz, 1946-1947

The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) was the military aviation arm of the United States of America during and immediately after World War II. It was a component of the United States Army, divided functionally by executive order in 1942 into three autonomous forces: the Army Ground Forces, the Services of Supply (which in 1943 became the Army Service Forces), and the AAF. Each of these forces had a commanding general who reported directly to the Chief of Staff of the United States Army.

The AAF controlled all parts of military aviation formerly distributed among the Air Corps, General Headquarters Air Force, and ground forces corps area commanders, and thus became the first air organization of the U.S. Army to control its own installations.

The direct precursor to the United States Air Force, its peak size was over 2.4 million men and women in service and nearly 80,000 aircraft in 1944, and 783 domestic bases in December 1943.^[1] By VE Day it had 1.25 million men stationed overseas and operated from more than 1,600 airfields worldwide.^[2]

The Air Corps became the Army Air Forces in June 1941 to provide the air arm a greater autonomy in which to expand more efficiently, and to provide a structure for the additional command echelons required by a vastly increased force. Although other nations already had separate air forces independent of the army or navy (such as the British Royal Air Force and the German Luftwaffe), the USAAF remained a part of the United States Army.

Lineage of the United States Air Force

• Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps 1 August 1907–18 July 1914
• Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps 18 July 1914–20 May 1918
• Division of Military Aeronautics 20 May 1918–24 May 1918
• United States Army Air Service 24 May 1918–2 July 1926
• United States Army Air Corps 2 July 1926–20 June 1941*
• United States Army Air Forces 20 June 1941–18 September 1947*
• United States Air Force 18 September 1947–present

* The Air Corps became a subordinate element of the Army Air Forces on 20 June 1941, and was abolished as an administrative organization on 9 March 1942. It continued to exist as a combat arm of the Army (similar to the infantry, armor, or artillery) until disestablished by the U.S. Congress with the creation of the U.S. Air Force in October 1947.

Creation of the Army Air Forces

Background

The roots of the AAF arose in the formulation of theories of strategic bombing at the Air Corps Tactical School that gave new impetus to arguments for an independent air force. Despite a perception of resistance and even obstruction by the U.S. Army General Staff, much of which was attributable to lack of funds, the Air Corps made great strides in the 1930s, both organizationally and in doctrine. A strategy stressing precision bombing of industrial targets by heavily armed, long-range bombers began to emerge, formulated by the very men who would become its future leaders.^[3]

A major step toward a separate air force, after the establishment of an "Air Corps" in 1926, came in March 1935 when command of all combat air units within the Continental United States was centralized under a single headquarters called General Headquarters Air Force. Since 1920, control of aviation units had resided with commanders of the Corps Areas (a peacetime ground forces administrative echelon), following the model established by General John Pershing during World War I. In 1924 the Army General Staff planned for a wartime activation of an Army General Headquarters, similar to the American Expeditionary Forces model of World War I, with a GHQ Air Force as a subordinate component. Both were created in 1933 when war with Cuba seemed possible following a coup, but were not activated.

Activation of GHQ Air Force represented a compromise between strategic airpower advocates and ground force commanders who demanded that the Air Corps mission remain tied to that of the land forces. Airpower advocates achieved a centralized control of air units under an air commander, while the General Staff divided authority within the air service and assured a continuing policy of support of ground operations as the primary role of the air arm.^[4] GHQ Air Force organized combat groups administratively into a strike force of three wings deployed to the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts. A division of the air defense of the United States into four geographical districts followed in 1940 that laid the foundation for the subsequent numbered air forces, and in November Army GHQ was activated and obtained full control of GHQ Air Force.

GHQ Air Force was small in comparison to European air forces. Lines of authority were difficult, at best, since GHQ Air Force controlled only operations of its combat units while the Air Corps was still responsible for doctrine, acquisition of aircraft, and training. The corps area commanders continued to control all airfields and the support personnel manning them. The commanders of GHQ Air Force and the Air Corps, Major Generals Frank Andrews and Oscar Westover respectively, clashed philosophically over the direction in which the air arm was taking, exascerbating the difficulties.^[5]

Creation of the Army Air Forces

General of the Army Henry H. Arnold

The likelihood of U.S. participation in World War II prompted the most radical reorganization of the aviation branch in its history, developing a structure that both unified command of all air elements and gave it total autonomy by March 1942. On June 20, 1941, under a revision by the United States Department of War of Army Regulation 95-5,^[6] Major General Henry H. Arnold, then Chief of the Air Corps, assumed the title of Chief of the Army Air Forces, creating an echelon of command over all military aviation components. The AAF was directly under the orders of the Army Chief of Staff, General George C. Marshall.^[7]

Arnold and Marshall agreed that the AAF would enjoy autonomy within the War Department until the end of the war, while its commanders would cease lobbying for independence. Marshall, a strong proponent of airpower, left understood that the Air Force would likely achieve its independence after the war. Soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, in recognition of importance of the role of the Army Air Forces, Arnold was given a seat on the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the planning staff that served as the focal point of American strategic planning during the war, in order that the United States would have an air representative in staff talks with their British counterparts on the Combined Chiefs. In effect the head of the AAF gained equality with Marshall. While this step was never officially recognized by the United States Navy, and was bitterly disputed behind the scenes at every opportunity, it nevertheless succeeded as a pragmatic foundation for the future separation of the Air Force.^[8]

GHQ Air Force was replaced by the Air Force Combat Command, and its four geographical districts were converted in January 1941 into numbered air forces, with a subordinate organization of 54 groups. Organizationally, the Army Air Forces was created as a higher command echelon encompassing both Air Force Combat Command and the Army Air Corps, thus bringing all of the air arm under a centralized command for the first time. Yet these reforms were only temporary, lasting just nine months as the air arm streamlined in preparation for war, with a goal of centralized planning and decentralized execution of operations.^[7]

Executive Order 9082 [1] changed Arnold's title to "Commanding General, Army Air Forces" on March 9, 1942, making him co-equal with the commanding generals of the new Army Ground Forces and Services of Supply, the other two parts of the Army of the United States. War Department Circular No. 59 carried out the executive order, intended as a wartime expedient to expire six months after the end of the war.^[9]

In addition to dissolving Army General Headquarters and assigning its training functions to the Army Ground Forces, War Department Circular 59 reorganized the Army Air Forces, disbanding the Combat Command (formerly GHQAF) and the Office of Chief of the Air Corps (changing the latter into a non-organizational branch of the Army), which eliminated an entire layer of command.^[10] Replacing them were eleven numbered air forces (later raised to sixteen) and six major commands (which became eight in January 1943: Flying Training, Technical Training, Troop Carrier, Air Transport, Materiel, Air Service, Proving Ground, and Anti-Submarine Commands). In July 1943, Flying Training and Technical Training Commands merged into a single Training Command.

Most members of the Army Air Forces, however, also remained members of the Air Corps. In May 1945, 88 per cent of officers serving in the Army Air Forces were commissioned in the Air Corps, while 82 per cent of enlisted members assigned to AAF units and bases had the Air Corps as their combat arm branch.^[11]

Expansion of the Army Air Forces

The Air Corps began a rapid expansion in the spring of 1939 at the direction of President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide an adequate air force for defense of the Western Hemisphere. An initial "25-group program", developed in April 1939, called for 50,000 men. When war broke out in September 1939 the Air Corps still had only 800 first-line combat aircraft and 76 bases, including 21 major installations and depots.^[12]

Following the successful German invasion of France and the Low Countries in May 1940, accelerated programs followed that repeatedly revised goals, resulting in plans for 84 combat groups, 7,799 combat aircraft, and the annual addition to the force of 30,000 new pilots and 100,000 technical personnel.^[13] The accelerated expansion programs resulted in a force of 156 airfields and 152,125 personnel at the time of the creation of the Army Air Forces.^[14]

The German invasion of the Soviet Union, occurring only two days after the creation of the Army Air Forces, caused an immediate reassessment of U.S. defense strategy and policy. The need for an offensive strategy to defeat the Axis Powers required further enlargement and modernization of all the military services, including the new AAF. In addition, the invasion produced a new Lend lease partner in Russia, creating even greater demands on an already struggling American aircraft production.^[16]

An offensive strategy required several types of urgent and sustained effort. In addition to the development and manufacture of aircraft in massive numbers, the Army Air Forces had to establish a global logistics network to supply, maintain, and repair the huge force; recruit and train personnel; and sustain the health, welfare, and morale of its troops. The process was driven by the pace of aircraft production, not the training program,^[17] and was ably aided by the direction of the new (April 1941) Assistant Secretary of War for Air, Robert A. Lovett.

A lawyer and a banker, Lovett had prior experience with the aviation industry that translated into realistic production goals and harmony in integrating the plans of the AAF with those of the Army as a whole.^[18] Lovett initially believed that President Roosevelt's demand following the attack on Pearl Harbor for 60,000 airplanes in 1942 and 125,000 in 1943 was grossly ambitious. However, working closely with General Arnold and engaging the capacity of the American automotive industry brought about an effort that produced almost 100,000 aircraft in 1944.^[19]

The logistical demands of this armada were met by the creation of the Air Service Command to provide service units and maintain 250 depots in the United States; the elevation of the Materiel Division to full command status to develop and procure aircraft, equipment, and parts; and the Air Technical Service Command to ship the materiel overseas.^[20] In addition to carrying personnel and cargo, the Air Transport Command made deliveries of almost 270,000 aircraft worldwide while losing only 1,013 in the process.^[21] The operation of the stateside depots was done largely by more than 300,000 civilian maintenance employees, many of them women, freeing a like number of Air Forces mechanics for overseas duty.^[22]

Growth of the USAAF, aircraft

Growth of the USAAF, personnel

Tuskegee Airmen War bonds poster

The huge increases in aircraft inventory resulted in a similar increase in personnel, and changed the personnel policies under which the Air Corps had operated since its inception in 1926. No longer could pilots represent 90% of commissioned officers. The need for large numbers of specialists in administration and technical services resulted in the establishment of an Officer Candidate School in Miami Beach, Florida, and the direct commissioning of thousands of professionals.^[23] Even so, 193,000 new pilots entered the AAF during World War II, while 124,000 other candidates failed at some point during training or were killed in accidents.^[24]

The requirements for new pilots resulted in the Aviation Cadet program, which had so many volunteers that the AAF created a reserve pool that held qualified pilot candidates until they could be called to active duty, rather than losing them in the draft. By 1944, this pool became surplus, and 24,000 were sent to the Army Ground Forces for retraining as infantry, and 6,000 to the Army Service Forces.^[25] Pilot standards were changed to reduce the minimum age from 20 to 18, and eliminated the educational requirement of at least two years of college. One beneficiary of this change went on to become a general in the United States Air Force, Charles E. Yeager.^[26]

1943 portrait of WAC air controller

Air crew needs resulted in the successful training of 43,000 bombardiers, 49,000 navigators, and 309,000 flexible gunners, many of whom also specialized in other aspects of air crew duties. 7,800 men qualified as B-29 flight engineers and 1,000 more as radar operators in night fighters, all of whom received commissions. Almost 1.4 million men received technical training as aircraft mechanics, electronics specialists, and other technicians. Non-aircraft related support services were provided by airmen trained by the Army Service Forces, but the AAF increasingly exerted influence on the curricula of these courses in anticipation of future independence.^[27][28]

African-Americans comprised approximately six per cent of this force (145,327 personnel in November 1943).^[29] In 1940, pressured by Congress, General Arnold agreed to accept blacks for pilot training, albeit on a segregated basis. A flight training center was set up at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. Despite the handicap—caused by the segregation policy—of not having an experienced training cadre as with other AAF units, the Tuskegee Airmen distinguished themselves in combat with the 332nd Fighter Group. The Tuskegee training program produced 673 black fighter pilots, 253 B-26 Marauder pilots, and 132 navigators.^[30]

The vast majority of African-American airmen, however, did not fare as well. Mainly draftees, most did not fly or maintain aircraft. Their largely menial duties, indifferent or hostile leadership, and poor morale led to serious dissatisfaction and several violent incidents.^[31]

Women served more successfully as part of the war-time Army Air Forces. Nearly 40,000 served in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps/Women's Army Corps as AAF personnel,^[32] more than 1,000 as Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs), and 6,500 as nurses in the Army Air Forces, including 500 flight nurses.^[33] 7,601 USAAF WACs served overseas in April 1945, and women performed in more than 200 job categories.^[34]

Growth of the USAAF, installations

The USAAF operated 156 airfields at the beginning of 1941. An airbase expansion program had been underway since 1939, attempting to keep pace with the increase in personnel, units, and aircraft, and using existing municipal and private facilities where possible. However the outbreak of war and the resulting accelerated expansion necessitated a wide variety of facilities for both operations and training within the Continental United States (CONUS).

In addition to the construction of new permanent bases and the building of numerous bombing and gunnery ranges, the USAAF utilized civilian pilot schools, training courses conducted at college and factory sites, and officer training detachments at colleges. In early 1942, in a controversial move, the USAAF Technical Training Command began leasing resort hotels and apartment buildings for large-scale training sites (accommodation for 90,000 existed in Miami Beach, Florida, alone).^[35] The leases were negotiated for the USAAF by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, often to the economic detriment of hotel owners in rental rates, wear and tear clauses, and short-notice to terminate leases.^[36]

In December 1943, the USAAF reached a war-time peak of 783 airfields in the Continental United States.^[37]

Installations

Organization and equipment

Command structure

By the end of World War II, the USAAF had created 16 numbered air forces (First through Fifteenth and Twentieth) distributed worldwide to prosecute the war and defend the Americas, plus a Zone of the Interior general air force within the continental United States to support the whole.^[38]

Several air forces were created de novo as the service expanded during the war. Some grew out of earlier commands—for example, the Eighth Air Force was originally VIII Bomber Command, then later had its designation again assigned to the command when that organization was discontinued—as the service expanded in size and organization, and higher echelons such as United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) in Europe and U.S. Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific became necessary to control the whole. In August 1945, the U.S. Strategic Air Forces became the United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE). A subordinate organizational tier, the command, was created to segregate units of similar functions (fighters and bombers) for administrative control.

An additional eight air divisions served as an additional layer of command for the vast organization, capable of acting independently if the need arose. Inclusive within the air forces and divisions were administrative headquarters called wings to control groups (operational units; see section below). As the number of groups increased, the number of wings needed to control them multiplied, with 91 ultimately activated, 69 of which were still active at the end of the war. As part of the Air Service and Air Corps, wings had been composite organizations, that is, composed of groups with different types of missions. Most of the wings of World War II, however, were composed of groups with like functions (denoted as bombardment, fighter, reconnaissance, training, antisubmarine, troop carrier, replacement, or composite).^[39]

USAAF recruitment poster.

Several support organizations, also called commands, remained under the control of Headquarters Army Air Forces. These were created, or expanded from earlier Air Corps organizations, in 1941 and 1942 to support and supply the numbered air forces, to which the operational units (groups and squadrons) were assigned.^[40][41]

These commands were:

• Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command (AC)
• Air Technical Service Command (ATSC)
• Air Transport Command (ATC)
• Army Air Forces Training Command (AAFTC)
• Personnel Distribution Command (PDC)
• Proving Ground Command (PGC)
• I Troop Carrier Command (TCC)
• Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics (AAFSAT)

While officially the air arm had become the Army Air Forces, colloquially the term Air Corps persisted among the public as well as veteran airmen, whose branch remained the Air Corps; in addition, the singular "Air Force" often crept into popular use, reflected by usage of the term "Air Force Combat Command" in 1941-42. This misnomer crept onto official recruiting posters (see image on right) and was important in promoting the idea of an "Air Force" as an independent service. The term appeared prominently in Frank Capra's War Department indoctrination film War Comes to America, of the Why We Fight series, as an animated map graphic of equal prominence to that of the Army and Navy.

Combat groups

The basic combat component of the Army Air Forces was the group, an organization of three or four flying squadrons and attached or organic ground support elements, which was the rough equivalent of a regiment of the Army Ground Forces. The Army Air Forces fielded a peak of 269 combat groups during World War II, and an operational peak in 1945 of 243 combat groups.^[39] The Air Service and its successor the Air Corps had established 15 combat groups between 1919 and 1937,^[42] which on 1 January 1940 were designated:

USAAF recruitment poster.

With the buildup of the military forces beginning February 1, 1940, the Air Corps expanded from 15 to 30 combat groups. By the time the United States entered World War II, the number had increased to 67, but half were in the process of being organized and were unsuitable for combat.^[56] Of the 67 groups formed or being organized, 26 were bombardment: 13 Heavy Bomb groups (B-17 Flying Fortress and B-24 Liberator), and the rest Medium and Light groups (B-25 Mitchell, B-26 Marauder, and A-20 Havoc). 26 were Pursuit groups (renamed fighter group in May 1942), 9 Observation (renamed Reconnaissance) groups, and 6 Transport (renamed Troop Carrier or Combat Cargo) groups.^[39][57]

In the first half of 1942 the Army Air Forces expanded rapidly. The extant training establishment was inadequate to train units wholesale, and so a concept was adopted of training cadres who would direct the training of their assigned units. The Army Air Force School of Applied Tactics (AAFSAT) was established 9 October 1942 to provide this training. By the beginning of 1944 there were 269 groups. 136 were deployed overseas, and of the remainder still in the United States, 77 were being organized and trained for overseas deployment. The other 56 served as defense units, as Operational Training Units (OTUs) preparing new units for combat, and as Replacement Training Units (RTUs) to train personnel replacements.^[39]

Early in 1944, all training was assigned to base units (non-standard administrative organizations of all units at a particular airfield under a single headquarters, and commonly seen designated as "AAF Base Units") and the OTUs and RTUs inactivated, reducing the number of groups to 218. However, with the formation and deployment of the remaining 25 new groups, the USAAF grew to its final form and at the time of the Invasion of Normandy in June 1944, 148 combat groups were fighting against Germany. By August 1945, when all combat operations ended, 86 groups were deployed in the Pacific and Far East, and the remaining force was either in occupation duties in Europe or re-deploying to the United States.

After the operational deployment of the B-29 Superfortress bomber, Very Heavy Bombardment units became part of the force structure. In February 1945, in its final organizational structure, the USAAF fielded 243 combat groups:

• 25 Very Heavy, 72 Heavy, 20 Medium, and 8 Light Bombardment groups;^[39]
• 71 Fighter groups;^[39][58]
• 29 Troop Carrier and Combat Cargo groups;^[39][59]
• 13 Reconnaissance groups;^[39] and
• 5 Composite groups.^[39][60]

1,226 combat squadrons were active in the USAAF between December 7, 1941 and September 1, 1945.^[61] In 1945 a total of 937 squadrons remained active, with 872 assigned to the various groups. 65 squadrons, mostly reconnaissance and night fighter, were not assigned to groups but as separate units under higher command echelons.^[39]

Aircraft

Maint article: List of military aircraft of the United States

The United States Army Air Forces used a large variety of aircraft in accomplishing its various missions, including many obsolete aircraft left over from its time as the Air Corps, with fifteen designations of types.^[62]

The following were the most numerous types in the USAAF inventory, or those that specifically saw combat. Variants, including all photo-reconnaissance ("F") variants, are listed and described under their separate articles. Many aircraft, particularly transports and trainers, had numerous designations resulting from differences in power plants.

Bomber

B-17G Fortresses of the 306th Bomb Group

• A-20 Havoc
• A-24 Banshee
• A-26 Invader
• A-36 Apache
• B-17 Flying Fortress
• B-18 Bolo
• B-24 Liberator
• B-25 Mitchell
• B-26 Marauder
• B-29 Superfortress
• B-32 Dominator
• B-34 Ventura

Fighter

P-51 Mustangs of 361st Fighter Group, 1944

• P-35

• P-36 Hawk
• P-38 Lightning
• P-39 Airacobra
• P-40 Warhawk
• P-47 Thunderbolt
• P-51 Mustang
• P-59 Airacomet
• P-61 Black Widow
• P-80 Shooting Star
• Supermarine Spitfire^[63]
• Bristol Beaufighter^[64]

Taylorcraft L-2M

Observation

• L-2 Grasshopper (Taylorcraft)
• Aeronca L-3
• Piper J-3 (L-4 Grasshopper)
• L-5 Sentinel (Stinson)
• O-47
• de Havilland Mosquito

C-47 of the 438th Troop Carrier Group

Transport

• C-45 Expeditor
• C-46 Commando
• C-47 Skytrain
• C-54 Skymaster
• C-56 Lodestar

Trainers

PT-19 primary trainer

• AT-6 Texan
• AT-11 Kansan
• AT-18 Hudson
• AT-17 Bobcat
• AT-21 Gunner
• BT-13 Valiant
• PT-13 Kaydet
• PT-16
• PT-19

Utility, rescue, and gliders

UC-64 Norseman

• UC-43 Traveler
• UC-61 Argus
• UC-64 Norseman
• UC-72
• UC-78 Bobcat
• Airspeed Oxford
• OA-10 Catalina
• R-4 Hoverfly
• CG-4 Waco
• Airspeed Horsa

Impact of World War II

Strategic planning

On 13 August 1941, the Air War Plans Division of the USAAF produced its plan for a global air strategy, AWPD-1.^[66] Formally known as "Annex 2, Air Requirements" to "The Victory Program," a plan of strategic estimates involving the entire U.S. military,^[67] the plan was prepared in accordance with strategic policies drawn earlier that year in the ABC-1 agreement with the British Commonwealth and the U.S. war plan Rainbow 5. Its forecast figures, despite planning errors from lack of accurate information about weather and the German economic commitment to the war, were within 2 percent of the units and 5.5 percent of the personnel ultimately mobilized,^[68] and it accurately predicted the time frame when the invasion of Europe by the Allies would take place.^[69]

AWPD-1 called for an air defense of the Western hemisphere, a strategic defense against Japan in the Pacific, and strategic bombardment by 6,800 bombers against Germany, identifying 154 key targets of the German economic infrastructure it considered vulnerable to a sustained campaign.^[70] A strategic bomber requirement of 7,500 aircraft, which included the intercontinental B-36^[70] (then still in the design phase), was far too large for American industry to achieve to be practical, and an interim plan to attack Germany with 3,800 bombers was included in AWPD-1.^[70]

AWPD-1 was approved by General Marshall and Secretary of War Henry Stimson in September 1941.^[71] Although war began before the plan could be presented to Roosevelt, it became the foundation for establishing aircraft production and training requirements used during the war, and the concept of a strategic bomber offensive against Germany became policy of the U.S. government,^[72] in accordance with United States strategic policy stated in Rainbow 5, as the only means available to the United States to take the war to Germany.^[71]

In August 1942 Roosevelt called for a revision of proposed air requirements. AWPD-42 was presented on 6 September 1942, and although never accepted by the U.S. Navy, its revised estimates (which more than doubled production requirements to nearly 150,000 aircraft of all types, including those of the Navy and exports to allies) guided the Roosevelt Administration in 1943. The estimate was later reduced to 127,000, of which 80,000 were combat aircraft.

Like its predecessor, AWPD-42 laid out a strategic plan for the daylight bombing of Germany by unescorted heavy bombers, but also included a similar plan for attacks on Japan. Unfortunately the B-17 bomber command of the U.S. Eighth Air Force had flown just six missions when AWPD-42 was drawn up, and the prior mistake in AWPD-1 of disregarding the need and feasibility of long-range fighter escorts was repeated.

Both plans called for the destruction of the German Air Force (GAF) as a necessary requirement before campaigns against priority economic targets. AWPD-1 established four target sets in order of priority: electrical power production, inland transportation, petroleum production, and Berlin;^[73] while AWPD-42 revised the priorities, placing U-Boat facilities first, followed by transportation, electricity production, petroleum production, and rubber production.^[74]

Operations summary

The Air Force Historical Studies Office summarizes the execution of USAAF strategy during World War II:^[15]

"Arnold's staff made the first priority in the war to launch a strategic bombing offensive in support of the RAF against Germany. The Eighth Air Force, sent to England in 1942, took on that job. After a slow and often costly effort to bring the necessary strength to bear, joined in 1944 by the Fifteenth Air Force stationed in Italy, strategic bombing finally began to get results, and by the end of the war, the German economy had been dispersed and pounded to rubble.

Tactical air forces supported the ground forces in the Mediterranean and European theaters, where the enemy found Allied air supremacy a constant frustration. In the war against Japan, General Douglas MacArthur made his advance along New Guinea by leap frogging his air forces forward and using amphibious forces to open up new bases. The AAF also supported Admiral Chester Nimitz's aircraft carriers in their island-hopping across the Central Pacific and assisted Allied forces in Burma and China.

Arnold directly controlled the Twentieth Air Force, equipped with the new long-range B-29 Superfortresses used for bombing Japan's home islands, first from China and then from the Marianas. Devastated by fire-raids, Japan was so weakened by August 1945 that Arnold believed neither the atomic bomb nor the planned invasion would be necessary to win the war. The fact that AAF B-29s dropped the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, nevertheless, demonstrated what air power could do in the future. The Strategic Bombing Survey provided ammunition for the leaders of the AAF in the postwar debates over armed forces unification and national strategy."

USAAF statistical summary of World War II

The United States Army Air Forces incurred 12% of the Army's 936,000 battle casualties in World War II. 88,119 airmen died in service. 52,173 were battle casualty deaths: 45,520 killed in action, 1,140 died of wounds, 3,603 were missing in action and declared dead, and 1,910 were nonhostile battle deaths. Of the United States military and naval services, only the Army Ground Forces suffered more battle deaths. 35,946 non-battle deaths included 25,844 in aircraft accidents, more than half of which occurred within the Continental United States.^[75] 63,209 members of the USAAF were other battle casualties. 18,364 were wounded in action and required medical evacuation, and 41,057 became prisoners-of-war.^[75][76] Its casualties were 5.1% of its strength, compared to 10% for the rest of the Army.^[77]

Total aircraft losses by the USAAF from December 1941 to August 1945 were 65,164, with 43,581 lost overseas and 21,583 within the Continental United States.^[78] Combat losses of aircraft totaled 22,948 world wide, with 18,418 lost in theaters fighting Germany and 4,530 lost in combat in the Pacific.^[79] The USAAF credited its own forces with destroying a total of 40,259 aircraft of opposing nations by all means, 29,916 against Germany and its allies and 10,343 in the Pacific.^[80]

The cost of the war to the USAAF was approximately $50 billion, or about 30% of the cost to the War Department,^[81] with cash expenditures from direct appropriations between July 1942 and August 1945 amounting to $35,185,548,000.^[82]

Total sorties flown by the AAF during World War II were 2,352,800, with 1,693,565 flown in Europe-related areas and 669,235 flown in the Pacific and Far East.^[83]

Demobilization and Air Force independence

With the defeat of Japan, the entire United States military establishment immediately began a drastic demobilization, as it had at the end of World War I. The USAAF was hit as hard or harder as the older services by demobilization. Officers and members were discharged, installations were closed, and aircraft were stored or sold. Between August 1945 and April 1946, its strength fell from 2.25 million men to just 485,000, and a year later to 304,000. Aircraft inventory dropped from 79,000 to less than 30,000, many of them in storage. Permanent installations were reduced from 783 to 177, just 21 more than pre-war.^[84][85]

By July 1946, the Army Air Forces had only 2 combat-ready groups out of 52 that remained on the list of active units. A rebuilt air force of 70 groups, the authorized peacetime strength, was anticipated, with reserve and national guard forces to be available for active duty in an emergency. However considerable opposition to a large peacetime military establishment, and to the financial cost of such an establishment, resulted in planning cuts to 48 groups.

General Carl A. Spaatz

In February 1946, ill health forced the retirement of General Arnold before he could fulfill his goal of achieving independence of the Air Force as an equal service with the Army and Navy. General Carl A. Spaatz replaced Arnold as the only other commanding general of the USAAF, and he oversaw both the demobilization of the largest air force in military history and its rebirth as envisioned by Generals Billy Mitchell and Arnold.

Arnold left the USAAF with two important legacies, based on his experiences in World War II, which shaped the post-war USAAF and its independent successor. The first was a requirement that the command staff of the service must include staff officers of varying expertise besides pilots. The second was the belief that despite the unqualified success of training methods that had expanded the Air Forces, the United States would never again have the time to mobilize and train the reserve components as it had in 1940, necessitating that reservists and National Guardsmen be immediately ready for service in case of national emergency.^[86]

For his part, Spaatz consulted closely with the new Army Chief of Staff, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, and reorganized the USAAF into three major commands (Strategic Air Command, Tactical Air Command, and Air Defense Command) that would not require a second restructuring once the Air Force became independent.^[87] He also re-structured the reserve components to conform with Arnold's concepts, including creation of the Air National Guard in April 1946.^[88]

Following the immense buildup in aviation infrastructure and personnel during the war, and in recognition of the tremendous new importance and strength of airpower, President Harry S. Truman created the Department of the Air Force in 1947. This legislation renamed the air arm as the United States Air Force, elevating it to a completely separate branch of the U.S. military. The initial delineation of service roles, Executive Order 9877, was supplanted on April 21, 1948, by the approval by President Truman of the Key West Agreement, which outlined the air assets that each service would be permitted to maintain. The Air Force was assigned the bulk of strategic, tactical, and transport aircraft, but the issue remained divisive well into the 1950s.^[89]

Culture of the U.S. Army Air Forces

USAAF Uniforms

Major Richard Bong in Officer's Service Dress

Awards ceremony at RAF Debden, April 1944, illustrating varying shades of olive drab. Light shade 33 on left, dark shade 51 on right. Trousers are shade 33, khaki shade 1, and drab shade 54. The three combinations at right are "pinks and greens".^[90]

M-1944 service dress "Ike jacket" in OD shade 33

At the AAF School of Air Evacuation at Bowman Field, Ky., student flight nurses learned how to handle patients with the aid of a mock-up fuselage of a Douglas C-47 transport.

USAAF uniforms for all members consisted of a winter service uniform of olive drab wool worn in temperate weather and a tropical weather summer service uniform of khaki cotton the same as those of other U.S. Army forces. In addition to the service uniforms usually worn for dress purposes and on pass from posts there were a variety of fatigue and flying uniforms. Summer and winter service uniforms were both worn throughout the year in the continental U.S. During WWII the European theater of operations was considered a year round temperate uniform zone and the Pacific theater of operations a year round tropical uniform zone.^[91]

The issue enlisted men's winter service uniform consisted of a four pocket coat and trousers in olive drab shade 33 (light shade) 16 oz wool serge. Shirts with two patch pockets and without shoulder straps were either 8.2 oz chino cotton khaki, a light tan, shade No. 1, or 10.5 oz olive drab wool light shade No. 33. Either shirt could be worn under the coat however the cotton shirt could not be worn as an outer garment with the wool trousers.^[92] The wool necktie for the winter uniform was black and the summer necktie was khaki, cotton originally.^[93] In February 1942 a universal mohair wool olive drab shade 3 necktie was authorized for both uniforms.^[94] An overcoat of OD shade 33 Melton wool was worn in cold weather. The enlisted man's summer service uniform consisted of the same cotton khaki shade No. 1 uniform shirt with matching trousers, the coat for this uniform stopped being issued in the 1930s. Whenever the shirt was worn as an outer garment the necktie was tucked between the second and third button of the shirt.^[95]

The male officer's winter service uniform consisted of a coat of finer wool fabric in olive drab shade No. 51 (dark-shade) with a fabric belt matching the coat, nicknamed "greens". Officers could wear trousers matching the color and fabric of the coat, or optionally they were allowed taupe colored, officially called "drab shade 54", trousers of the same material as the coat, nicknamed "pinks", leading to the nickname "pinks and greens" for the combination.^[96] Officers were also authorized to use the harder-wearing olive drab shade 33 serge uniforms, except for the enlisted men's four pocket service coat, as long as they were not mixed with OD Shade 51 or Drab Shade 54 clothing.^[97] An officer's OD overcoat and taupe rain coat were also authorized. Officers wore same cotton khaki shade No. 1 or olive drab wool light shade No. 33 shirts as enlisted men except with the addition of shoulder straps. Officers also had additional shirt color and fabric options, OD dark shade No. 50 or No. 51 and in 1944 drab shade No. 54.^[92] Officers wore black and khaki neckties until after February 1942 when neckties of wool cotton blend khaki shade 5 were authorized.^[98] Male officer's summer service uniforms usually consisted of the wash and wear cotton khaki shade 1 uniforms like those of the enlisted men the main difference being that the shirts had shoulder straps. An OD wool shirt and cotton khaki trouser combination was also authorized. However for dress purposes they also had the option of purchasing a khaki shade 1 summer service uniform of tropical weight suiting fabric. This uniform was identical in cut to the winter officers uniform except for the color and cloth however the cloth belt of the winter coat was omitted.^[99]

Personnel stationed in Europe, and after 1944 in the U.S., were authorized wear the wool waist length jacket, in either OD Shade 51 (for officers only) or OD Shade 33, nicknamed the "Ike jacket" and eventually standardized as the M-1944 Field Jacket, in lieu of the full-length tunic of the service dress uniform.^[100]

Headgear for service uniforms consisted of two types, similar to those in use in the Army ground forces, in olive drab for winter wear and khaki for summer. The garrison cap, commonly called the "flight cap" in the Air Forces, had been authorized for all ranks since 1926 to facilitate the wearing of radio headsets during flights. The "curtain" had piping for enlisted men in the USAAF branch colors of orange and ultramarine blue. Warrant Officers caps were piped with black and silver cord other officers had black and gold except for generals who had all gold cords.^[101] The oval service cap was fitted with a spring stiffening device called a grommet, and prior to World War II uniform regulations authorized officers to remove the grommet to permit the use of headsets. This style became widely popular during World War II as a symbol of being a combat veteran, and was known as a "50-mission crush" cap.^[102] The service cap however was no longer generally issued to enlisted men after 1942.^[103]

Leather items, including shoes, were russet in color, and the USAAF became known as the "Brown Shoe Air Force" after the United States Air Force became a separate service.^[104]

Female USAAF uniforms were either the uniform of the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) or that of the Women's Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) with appropriate USAAF branch insignia. Later, the Women's Army Corps (WAC) replaced the WAAC. Although female auxiliary organizations such as the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron (WAFS) and Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) performed valuable service as pilots to the USAAF, only the ANC and the WAC were official members of the U.S. Armed Forces. Nurses attached to the USAAF wore Army hospital whites, or prior to 1943, the ANC winter service uniform consisting of the ANC pattern dark blue cap or garrison cap with maroon piping, suit jacket with maroon cuff braid and gold army buttons, light blue or white shirt, black tie and light blue skirt, shoes were black or white. The ANC summer service uniform consisted of a similar suit in beige with maroon shoulder strap piping and cuff braid, beige ANC cap or beige garrison cap with maroon piping, white shirt, and black four-in-hand tie. During WWII the first flight nurses uniform consisted of a blue wool battle dress jacket, blue wool trousers and a blue wool men's style maroon piped garrison cap. The uniform was worn with either the ANC light blue or white shirt and black tie.^[105] After 1943 the ANC adopted service uniforms similar to the newly formed WAAC. In the USAAF they became known unofficially as "Air WACs". The WAAC (later WAC) service uniforms went through an evolution of patterns over the course of the war years, however throughout the period the service uniforms both summer and winter generally consisted of the WAC pattern hat or optionally women's garrison cap, suit coat (winter only for enlisted women), shirtwaist, four-in-hand tie, skirt, russet leather women's service shoes and hand bag. The women's olive drab wool "Ike jacket" was also worn as were women's service trousers. The colors essentially mirrored those of their male counterparts of corresponding rank in the equivalent service uniform although fabrics differed. There were also special off duty dresses of summer beige and winter tan. The new olive drab ANC uniforms were the same as those for WAC officers except for the ANC pattern hat and the ANC pattern handbag. The off duty dress was a separate ARC pattern in olive drab shade 51 or beige. The ARC beige summer service uniform with maroon trim was retained except that the tie was changed to maroon.^[106] Sage green fatigue uniforms of herringbone cotton twill for women, along with women's combat boots, field jackets and flight clothing, were manufactured by the U.S. Army during WWII. However. when women's versions of these items were not available, as was often the case during the war, men's issue items were used instead.

Flight clothing varied widely by theater of operation and type of mission. Innovative aviation flight suits, boots, leather helmets, goggles, and gloves were issued as early as 1928 to the United States Army Air Corps, and at least one style, the Type A-3 flight suit, continued in service until 1944.^[102] However, A-2 flight jackets, made standard issue in 1931, became one of the best known symbols of the USAAF. Made of seal brown leather with a beige spun silk lining, the jackets featured an officer's stand-up collar, shoulder straps, knit waistbands and cuffs, a zipper closing, and unit insignia.^[107] Heavy, sheepskin-lined B-3 and B-6 flight jackets, A-3 winter flying trousers, and B-2 "gunner's" caps, all in seal brown shearling, proved insufficient for the extreme cold temperatures of high altitude missions in unpressurized aircraft, and were supplemented by a variety of one-piece electrically heated flying suits manufactured by General Electric. In addition to men's flight clothing, flight nurses wore specially manufactured women's lightweight and intermediate weight flight jackets and pants.^[108] Flight clothing such as the A-2 jacket was not authorized to be worn off the camp or post unless required for flight duty.^[109] The same sage green fatigue uniforms of herringbone cotton twill, and wind-resistant poplin field jackets used by Army ground troops, were also used by USAAF troops depending on duty assignment.^[110]

AAF uniforms were subject to Army Regulations, specifically AR 600-35 and AR 600-40, authorizing the wearing of emblems, badges, and insignia on the uniform. The vast size of the service saw the wearing of many custom-made variants of authorized emblems, badges, and insignia, and numerous examples of unauthorized insignia and emblems appeared throughout the forces, particularly in combat units overseas.

USAAF Badges

SOURCE: Martin Bowman, USAAF Handbook 1939-1945, p. 156. Reproduction of relevant page from The Officer's Guide, Military Service Publishing Co., July 1943.

To denote the special training and qualifications required for membership in the USAAF, the following military badges (known colloquially but ubiquitously throughout the service as "wings") were authorized for wear by members of the Army Air Forces during World War II:

Aerial Gunner Badge

Bombardier Badge

Flight Engineer Badge

Navigator Badge

• Aerial Gunner Badge
• Aircraft Observer Badge
• Aircrew Badge
• Army Air Force Technician Badge
• Airship Pilot Badge
• Balloon Observer Badge
• Balloon Pilot Badge
• Bombardier Badge
• Command Pilot Badge
• Flight Engineer Badge
• Flight Instructor Badge
• Flight Nurse Badge
• Flight Surgeon Badge
• Glider Pilot Badge
• Liaison Pilot Badge
• Navigator Badge
• Pilot Badge
• Senior Balloon Pilot Badge
• Senior Pilot Badge
• Service Pilot Badge
• Technical Observer Badge
• Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) Badge

These aviation qualification badges were typically worn in full three-inch (76 mm) size on service or dress uniforms, but two-inch versions (nicknamed "sweetheart wings") were also authorized for less-formal shirt wear. Most aviation badges were made of sterling silver or were given a silver finish, and various devices were used to attach them to uniforms. These included the traditional pin and safety catch and, later, clutch-back fasteners. Most USAAF badges of World War II became obsolete, having been superseded by later designs, and were not authorized for wear on the uniform after 1955.

USAAF Emblems

The first shoulder sleeve insignia authorized for Air Corps wear was that of the General Headquarters Air Force, approved 20 July 1937.^[111] This sleeve insignia, which consisted of a blue triskelion superimposed on a gold circle was retained after GHQ Air Force became Air Force Combat Command on 20 June 1941. The triskelion represented a stylized propeller that symbolized the three combat wings of GHQ Air Force.^[112] On 23 February 1942, the GHQ AF patch was discontinued and the service-wide AAF sleeve insignia ("Hap Arnold Emblem") approved. The patch was designed by a member of Gen. Arnold's staff, James T. Rawls, and was based on the V-for-Victory sign popularized by Winston Churchill.^[113]

The wearing of sleeve insignia was authorized for members of numbered air forces based overseas on 2 March 1943, and for air forces in the United States on 25 June 1943. From that date forward, the "Hap Arnold Emblem" was worn only by personnel of units not assigned to a numbered air force. AR 600-40, "Wear of the Service Uniform," subsequently limited sleeve insignia to the 16 air forces and the AAF patch. The Quartermaster Corps, responsible for the design and supply of all authorized insignia, resisted further designs for the AAF until 28 July 1945, when command arcs (arc-shaped tabs) were authorized for wear above the AAF insignia by members of the various commands. {The 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th Air Force emblems are not shown here as these were post World War II organizations}

First Air Force Northeast United States	Second Air Force Northwest United States	Third Air Force Southeast United States	Fourth Air Force Southwest United States
Fifth Air Force Philippines Australia Southwest Pacific	Sixth Air Force Caribbean Islands Panama South America	Seventh Air Force Hawaii Central Pacific	Eighth Air Force Europe
Ninth Air Force Middle East North Africa Europe	Tenth Air Force India Burma	Eleventh Air Force Alaska	Twelfth Air Force North Africa Mediterranean
Thirteenth Air Force South Pacific	Fourteenth Air Force China	Fifteenth Air Force Mediterranean	Twentieth Air Force India/China Mariana Islands

See also

• Army Air Forces School of Applied Tactics
• History of the United States Army
• Operation Bolero
• Project Alberta
• Silverplate
• Strategic bombing during World War II
• USAAF unit identification aircraft markings
• USAAF bombardment group
• Women Airforce Service Pilots

Notes

References

• Bowman, Martin W. (1997). USAAF Handbook 1939-1945, Stackpole Books, ISBN 0-8117-1822-0
• Nalty, Bernard C. editor, Winged Shield, Winged Sword: A History of the United States Air Force Vol. I (1997). Air Force History and Museums Program, USAF. ISBN 0-16-049009-X
• Maurer, Maurer. Air Force Combat Units of World War II. 1986.
• Dr. Chase C. Mooney (1956) USAF Historical Study No. 10 Organization of the Army Air Arm, 1935-1945
• Mark Skinner Watson (1991). Chief of Staff: Pre-war Plans and Preparations, "Chapter IX: The Movement Toward Air Autonomy" United States Army in World War II (series), "The War Department", United States Army Center of Military History
• Ray S. Cline (1990). Washington Command Post: The Operations Division "Chapter VI: Organizing the High Command for World War II" United States Army in World War II (series), "The War Department", United States Army Center of Military History
• War Department. Army Regulations No. 600-35 "Personnel,Prescribed Service Uniform" November 10, 1941.
• War Department. Army Regulations No. 600-40 "Personnel,Wearing of the Service Uniform" August 28, 1941.
• War Department. Army Regulations No. 600-35 "Personnel,Prescribed Service Uniform" March 31, 1944.
• War Department. Army Regulations No. 600-40 "Personnel,Wearing of the Service Uniform" March 31, 1944.
• QMC Historical Studies No. 16 "Clothing the Soldier of World War II" Risch and Pitkin (1946)
• War Department Circular No. 391, 30 Sept. 1944, Sec. VII."Adoption of M-1944 Field Jacket".
• "The Officer's Guide" 9th Edition, 1942, The Military Service Publishing Co.
• Smith, Jill H. (2001). "Dressed for Duty, America's Women in Uniform 1898-1973" , R. James Bender Publishing, ISBN 0-912138-81-5

External links

• ArmyAirForces.com—private site, comprehensive look at the USAAF. Includes searchable databases, histories, dictionary, and forum.
  • USAAF air force/division/wing histories History of all USAAF subdivisions.
  • USAAF jargon dictionary—contains 526 words and abbreviations.
  • USAAF unit search—searchable database of groups, squadrons, squadron codes, stations, and commanders.
  • USAAF missing air crew report search—searchable database of missing air crew reports (MACRs) by MACR number, date, serial number, and group.
• Allied Fighter Combat Footage—Watch combat footage from Allied fighters
• Night Fighter by J R Smith
• USAAF roll of honour—1944–45
• Air Force History Overview
• U.S. Army Air Forces in World War II: Combat Chronology 1941–1945
• Air Power: The United States Air Force
• A Guide to United States Air Force Lineage and Honors
• Army Air Forces Aircraft: A Definitive Moment
• AAFCollection.info Historical Army Air Forces training manuals and class books
• USAAF.net—"Published accounts of the Army Air Forces in World War II available in the public domain."
• USAAF in WWII—Combat chronology. Available for ZIP download.

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